See also:
Origin and development of the Qur'an and
WahyThe cave
Hira in the mountain
Jabal al-Nour where, according to Muslim beliefs, Muhammad received his first revelation.
At some point Muhammad adopted the practice of meditating alone for several weeks every year in a cave on
Mount Hira near Mecca.
[50][51] Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits to Mount Hira, the angel
Gabriel appeared to him in the year 610 and commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses:
[52]Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Qur'an
96:1-5)
According to some traditions, upon receiving his first revelations Muhammad was deeply distressed and contemplated throwing himself off the top of a mountain but the spirit moved closer and told him that he has been chosen as a messenger of God. Muhammad returned home and was consoled and reassured by his wife, Khadijah and her Christian cousin,
Waraqah ibn Nawfal. Shia tradition maintains that Muhammad was neither surprised nor frightened at the appearance of Gabriel but rather welcomed him as if he had been expecting him.
[53] The initial revelation was followed by a pause of three years during which Muhammad gave himself up further to prayers and
spiritual practices. When the revelations resumed he was reassured and commanded to begin preaching: Your lord has not forsaken you nor does he hate [you] (Qur'an
93:1-11).
[54][55]According to
Welch these revelations were accompanied by mysterious seizures, and the reports are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims.
[14] Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.
[56] According to the Qur'an, one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Qur'an
38:70, Qur'an
6:19). Sometimes the Qur'an does not explicitly refer to the Judgment day but provides examples from the history of some extinct communities and warns Muhammad's contemporaries of similar calamities (Qur'an
41:13–16).
[57] Muhammad is not only a warner to those who reject God's revelation, but also a bearer of good news for those who abandon evil, listen to the divine word and serve God.
[58] Muhammad's mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Qur'an demands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols apart from God or associate other deities with God.
[57]The key themes of the early Qur'anic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of dead, God's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in hell and pleasures in Paradise; and the signs of God in all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few: belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not to kill newborn girls.
[14]Opposition
See also:
Persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and
Migration to AbyssiniaAccording to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet.
[59] She was soon followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin
Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend
Abu Bakr, and adopted son
Zaid.
[59] Around 613, Muhammad began his public preaching (Qur'an
26:214).
[60] Most Meccans ignored him and a few mocked him, while others became his followers. There were three main groups of early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners.
[61]According to Ibn Sad, the opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the Meccan forefathers who engaged in polytheism.
[62] However, the Qur'anic exegesis maintains that it began as soon as Muhammad started public preaching.
[63] As the number of followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life, which Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the
Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba.
[61] The powerful merchants tried to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching by offering him admission into the inner circle of merchants, and establishing his position therein by an advantageous marriage. However, he refused.
[61]Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment of Muhammad and his followers.
[14] Sumayyah bint Khabbab, a slave of
Abu Jahl and a prominent Meccan leader, is famous as the first martyr of Islam, having been killed with a spear by her master when she refused to give up her faith.
Bilal, another Muslim slave, was tortured by
Umayya ibn khalaf who placed a heavy rock on his chest to force his conversion.
[64][65] Apart from insults, Muhammad was protected from physical harm as he belonged to the Banu Hashim clan.
[66][67]Location of Abyssinia (
Aksumite Empire).
In 615, some of Muhammad's followers
emigrated to the
Ethiopian Aksumite Empire and founded a small colony there under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor
Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.
[14] Some early traditions[
which?] describe Muhammad's involvement at this time in an episode that has come to be known as the "Story of the Cranes" -- dubbed by some scholars[
which?] as the "
Satanic Verses." The account holds that Muhammad pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses considered to be the daughters of Allah, praising them, and appealing for their intercession. According to these accounts, Muhammad later retracted the verses at the behest of Gabriel.
[68] Islamic scholars vigorously objected to the historicity of the incident as early as the tenth century CE.
[69] In any event, relations between the Muslims and their pagan fellow-tribesmen rapidly deteriorated.
In 617 the leaders of
Makhzum and
Banu Abd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans, declared a public
boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressurize it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. The boycott lasted three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective.
[70][71]Last years in Mecca
Road to
Ta'if in the foreground, mountains of Ta'if in the background (
Saudi Arabia).
Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib both died in 619, the year thus being known as the "
year of sorrow." With the death of Abu Talib, the leadership of the Banu Hashim clan was passed to Abu Lahab, an inveterate enemy of Muhammad. Soon afterwards,
Abu Lahab withdrew the clan's protection from Muhammad. This placed Muhammad in danger of death since the withdrawal of clan protection implied that the blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted. Muhammad then
visited Ta'if, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector for himself there, but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger.
[71][14] Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mut'im b. Adi (and the protection of the tribe of
Banu Nawfal) made it possible for him safely to re-enter his native city.
[14][71]Many people were visiting Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the
Kaaba. Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called
Medina).
[14] The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism because a Jewish community existed there.
[14] Converts to Islam came from nearly all
Arab tribes in Medina, such that by June of the subsequent year there were seventy-five Muslims coming to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what was known as the "
Second Pledge of al-`Aqaba", or the "Pledge of War"
[72] Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to
emigrate to
Yathrib. As with the
migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration. However, almost all Muslims managed to leave.
[73]Isra and Mi'raj
Main article:
Isra and Mi'rajThe Al-Aqsa Mosque, adjacent to the Dome of the Rock, the site from which Muhammad is believed to have ascended to heaven.
Islamic tradition relates that in 620, Muhammad experienced the
Isra and Mi'raj, a miraculous journey said to have occurred with the angel
Gabriel in one night. In the first part of the journey, the Isra, he is said to have travelled from
Mecca to "the farthest mosque" (in Arabic: masjid al-aqsa), which Muslims usually identify with the
Al-Aqsa Mosque in
Jerusalem. In the second part, the Miraj, Muhammad is said to have toured
heaven and
hell, and spoken with earlier prophets, such as
Abraham,
Moses, and
Jesus.
[74] Ibn Ishaq, author of the first
biography of Muhammad, presents this event as a spiritual experience whereas later historians like
Al-Tabari and
Ibn Kathir present it as a physical journey.
[74] Some western scholars of Islam hold that the oldest Muslim tradition identified the journey as one traveled through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al-Baytu l-Maʿmur (heavenly prototype of the Kaaba); but later tradition identified Muhammad's journey from Mecca to Jerusalem.
[75]Timeline of Muhammad in Medina
Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad in Medina
c. 618
Medinan Civil War
622
Emigrates to Medina (
Hijra)
624
Battle of Badr: Muslims defeat Meccans
624
Expulsion of
Banu Qaynuqa625
Battle of Uhud: Meccans defeat Muslims
625
Expulsion of
Banu Nadir627
Battle of the Trench627
Demise of
Banu Qurayza628
Treaty of Hudaybiyyahc. 628
Gains access to Meccan shrine
Kaaba628
Conquest of the
Khaybar oasis
629
First
hajj pilgrimage
629
Attack on
Byzantine Empire fails:
Battle of Mu'tah630
Bloodless
conquest of Meccac. 630
Battle of Hunaync. 630
Siege of Ta'ifc. 631
Rules most of the Arabian peninsula
c. 632
Attacks the
Ghassanids:
Tabuk632
Farewell
hajj pilgrimage
632
Death (
June 8): Medina
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editMuhammad in Medina
Hijra
Main articles:
Hijra (Islam) and
Muhammad in MedinaA delegation consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina, invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to Medina to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community.
[76][77] There was fighting in Yathrib mainly involving its Arab and Jewish inhabitants for around a hundred years before 620.
[76] The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the
Battle of Bu'ath in which all clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal conceptions of blood-feud and
an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.
[76] The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves.
[14]Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina until virtually all his followers left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure of Muslims, according to the tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad. With the help of Ali, Muhammad fooled the Meccans who were watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr.
[78] By 622, Muhammad emigrated to
Medina, a large agricultural
oasis. Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as
muhajirun (emigrants).
[14]Establishment of a new polity
Main article:
Constitution of MedinaAmong the first things Muhammad did in order to settle down the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina was drafting a document known as the
Constitution of Medina, "establishing a kind of alliance or federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca, which specified the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina (including that of the Muslim community to other communities, specifically the
Jews and other "
Peoples of the Book").
[76][77] The community defined in the Constitution of Medina,
Ummah, had a religious outlook but was also shaped by practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.
[14] It effectively established the first Islamic state.
The first group of pagan converts to Islam in Medina were the clans who had not produced great leaders for themselves but had suffered from warlike leaders from other clans. This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Medina, apart from some exceptions. According to Ibn Ishaq, this was influenced by the conversion of
Sa'd ibn Mu'adh (a prominent Medinan leader) to Islam.
[79] Those Medinans who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim emigrants find shelter became known as the
ansar (helpers).
[14] Then Muhammad instituted
brotherhood between the emigrants and the helpers and he chose
Ali as his own brother.
[80]Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Medina CharterWith the early general conversion of the pagans, the pagan opposition was never of prime importance in the affairs of Medina. Those remaining pagans were very bitter about the advance of Islam. In particular,
Asma bint Marwan and
Abu 'Afak had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims. These two were assassinated and Muhammad did not disapprove of it. No one dared take vengeance on them, and some members of
Asma bint Marwan's clan who previously converted to Islam in secret, now professed Islam openly. This ended overt opposition to Muhammad among the pagans.
[81]Beginnings of armed conflict
A map of the
Badr campaign.
Main article:
Battle of BadrFollowing the emigration, the Meccans seized the properties of the Muslim emigrants in Mecca.
[82] Economically uprooted and with no available profession, the Muslim migrants turned to raiding Meccan caravans for their livelihood, thus initiating armed conflict between the Muslims and Mecca.
[83][84] Muhammad delivered
Qur'anic verses permitting the Muslims to fight the Meccans (see Qur'an
22:39–40).
[85] These attacks pressured Mecca by interfering with trade, and allowed the Muslims to acquire wealth, power and prestige while working towards their ultimate goal of inducing Mecca's submission to the new faith.
[86][87] In March of 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for them at Badr.
[88] Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims. Meanwhile, a force from Mecca was sent to protect the caravan, continuing forward to confront the Muslims upon hearing that the caravan was safe. The Battle of Badr began in March of 624.
[89] Though outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans with only fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including
Abu Jahl.
[90] Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were soon ransomed in return for wealth or freed.
[91][92][83] Muhammad and his followers saw in the victory a confirmation of their faith.
[14] The Qur'anic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan ones, dealt with practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils.
[93]Muhammad expelled from Medina the
Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes.
[14] Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of Hijaz.
[14]Conflict with Mecca
Main article:
Battle of UhudThe attack at Badr committed Muhammad to
total war with Meccans, who were now anxious to avenge their defeat. To maintain their economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been lost at Badr.
[94] In the ensuing months, Muhammad led expeditions on tribes allied with Mecca and sent out a raid on a Meccan caravan.
[95] Abu Sufyan subsequently gathered an army of three thousand men and set out for an attack on Medina.
[96]Map of the
Battle of Uhud, showing the Muslim and Meccan lines respectively.
A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, there was dispute over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many senior figures suggested that it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of its heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying their crops, and that huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the wishes of the latter, and readied the Muslim force for battle. Thus, Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (where the Meccans had camped) and fought the
Battle of Uhud on March 23.
[97][98] Although the Muslim army had the best of the early encounters, indiscipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat, with 75 Muslims killed including
Hamza, Muhammad's uncle and one of the best known
martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims further, but marched back to Mecca declaring victory. They were not entirely successful, however, as they had failed to achieve their aim of completely destroying the Muslims.
[99][100] The Muslims buried the dead, and returned to Medina that evening. Questions accumulated as to the reasons for the loss, and Muhammad subsequently delivered Qur'anic verses [
Qur'an 3:152] which indicated that their defeat was partly a punishment for disobedience and partly a test for steadfastness.
[101]Abu Sufyan now directed his efforts towards another attack on Medina. He attracted the support of nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina, using propaganda about Muhammad's weakness, promises of booty, memories of the prestige of the
Quraysh and use of bribes.
[102] Muhammad's policy was now to prevent alliances against him as much as he could. Whenever alliances of tribesmen against Medina were formed, he sent out an expedition to break them up.
[102] When Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Medina, he reacted with severity.
[103] One example is the assassination of
Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf, a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of
Banu Nadir who had gone to Mecca and written poems that helped rouse the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the Battle of Badr.
[104] Around a year later, Muhammad expelled the Banu Nadir from Medina.
[105] Muhammad's attempts to prevent formation of a confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and stop many potential tribes from joining his enemies.
[106]Siege of Medina
Main article:
Battle of the TrenchWith the help of the exiled
Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader
Abu Sufyan had mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3000 men and adopted a new form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time: the Muslims dug a trench wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam,
Salman the Persian. The siege of Medina began on March 31 627 and lasted for two weeks.
[107] Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications they were confronted with, and after an ineffectual siege lasting several weeks, the coalition decided to go home.
[108] The Qur'an discusses this battle in verses Qur'an
33:9-33:27.
[63]Battle of Khandaq (Battle of the Trench).
During the battle, the Jewish tribe of
Banu Qurayza, located at the south of Medina, had entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. Although they were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after the prolonged negotiations, in part due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's scouts.
[109] After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered and all the men, apart from a few who converted to Islam, were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved.
[110][111] In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted their utmost strength towards the destruction of the Muslim community. Their failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria was gone.
[112] Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the north which ended without any fighting.
[14] While returning from one of these (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an
accusation of adultery was made against
Aisha, Muhammad's wife. Aisha was exonerated from the accusations when Muhammad announced that he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses.
[113]Truce of Hudaybiyya
Main article:
Treaty of HudaybiyyahAlthough Muhammad had already delivered Qur'anic verses commanding the
Hajj,
[114] the Muslims had not performed it due to the enmity of the Quraysh. In the month of
Shawwal 628, Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to make preparations for a pilgrimage (
umrah) to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision where he was shaving his head after the completion of the Hajj.
[115] Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the
Quraysh sent out a force of 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, thereby reaching al-Hudaybiyya, just outside of Mecca.
[116] According to Watt, although Muhammad's decision to make the pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was at the same time demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam does not threaten the prestige of their sanctuary, and that Islam was an Arabian religion.
[116]Negotiations commenced with emissaries going to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators,
Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad responded by calling upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Acceptance" (
Arabic: بيعة الرضوان , bay'at al-ridhwān) or the "
Pledge under the Tree." News of Uthman's safety, however, allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.
[116][117] The main points of the treaty included the cessation of hostilities; the deferral of Muhammad's pilgrimage to the following year; and an agreement to send back any Meccan who had gone to Medina without the permission of their protector.
[116]A rendering of the seal attributed to Muhammad used in the letters sent to other heads of state.
Many Muslims were not satisfied with the terms of the treaty. However, the Qur'anic sura "
Al-Fath" (The Victory) (Qur'an
48:1-29) assured the Muslims that the expedition from which they were now returning must be considered a victorious one.
[118] It was only later that Muhammad's followers would realise the benefit behind this treaty. According to Welch, these benefits included the inducing of the Meccans to recognise Muhammad as an equal; a cessation of military activity posing well for the future; and gaining the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the incorporation of the pilgrimage rituals.
[14]After signing the truce, Muhammad made an expedition against the Jewish oasis of
Khaybar, known as the
Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to it housing the Banu Nadir, who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain some prestige to deflect from what appeared to some Muslims as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya.
[96][119] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad also
sent letters to many rulers of the world, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources).
[120][121][14] Hence he sent messengers (with letters) to
Heraclius of the
Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire),
Khosrau of
Persia, the chief of
Yemen and to some others.
[120][121] In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad sent his forces against the Arabs on
Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the
Battle of Mu'tah, in which the Muslims were defeated.
[122]Final years
Conquest of Mecca
Main articles:
Conquest of Mecca and
Muhammad after the conquest of MeccaThe
Kaaba in
Mecca held a major economic and religious role for the area. It became the Muslim
Qibla (
prayer direction).
An artist's 16th-century depiction of Muhammad and his companions advancing on Mecca. The angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrail, are also in the painting.
Muhammad
prohibits intercalary months during
the Farewell Pilgrimage. 17th century Ottoman copy of a 14th century (
Ilkhanate) manuscript (Edinburgh codex). Illustration of
Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's
The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries.
The Mosque of the Prophet (Al-Masjid al-Nabawi) is Islam's second most sacred site. The green dome in the background stands above Muhammad's tomb.
The
truce of Hudaybiyya had been enforced for two years.
[123][124] The tribe of
Banu Khuza'a had good relations with Muhammad, whereas their enemies, the
Banu Bakr, had an alliance with the Meccans.
[123][124] A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuz'aah, killing a few of them.
[123][124] The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.
[123] After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were that either the Meccans paid
blood money for those slain among the Khuza'ah tribe; or, that they should disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr; or, that they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyya null.
[125]The Meccans replied that they would accept only the last condition.
[125] However, soon they realized their mistake and sent
Abu Sufyan to renew the Hudaybiyya treaty, but now his request was declined by Muhammad.
Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign.
[126] In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than ten thousand men. With minimal casualties, Muhammad took control of Mecca.
[127] He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who had mocked and ridiculed him in songs and verses. Some of these were later pardoned.
[128] Most Meccans converted to Islam and Muhammad subsequently destroyed all the statues of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba.
[129][130] The Qur'an discusses the conquest of Mecca.
[131][63]Conquest of Arabia
Main articles:
Battle of Hunayn and
Battle of TaboukSoon after the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were collecting an army twice the size of Muhammad's. The
Banu Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the
Banu Thaqif (inhabiting the city of Ta'if) who adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans.
[132] Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the Battle of Hunayn.
[14]In the same year, Muhammad made the expedition of Tabuk against northern Arabia because of their previous defeat at the
Battle of Mu'tah as well as reports of the hostile attitude adopted against Muslims. Although Muhammad did not make contact with hostile forces at Tabuk, he received the submission of some local chiefs of the region.
[14][133]A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to
Medina to surrender to Muhammad and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad in order to be safe against his attacks and to benefit from the booties of the wars.
[14] However, the bedouins were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to maintain their independence, their established code of virtue and their ancestral traditions. Muhammad thus required of them a military and political agreement according to which they "acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and to pay the
Zakat, the Muslim religious levy."
[134]Farewell pilgrimage and death
Main article:
The Farewell PilgrimageAt the end of the tenth year after the migration to Medina, Muhammad carried through his first truly Islamic pilgrimage, thereby teaching his followers the rites of the annual Great Pilgrimage (Hajj).
[14]After completing the pilgrimage, Muhammad delivered a famous speech known as
The Farewell Sermon. In this sermon, Muhammad advised his followers not to follow certain pre-Islamic customs such as
adding intercalary months to align the
lunar calendar with the
solar calendar. Muhammad abolished all old
blood feuds and disputes based on the former
tribal system and asked for all old pledges to be returned as implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammed asked his male followers to “Be good to women; for they are powerless captives (awan) in your households. You took them in God’s trust, and
legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to your senses people, and hear my words ...”. He also told them that they were entitled to discipline their wives but should do so with kindness. Muhammad also addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased and also forbidding his followers to leave their wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each year.
[135][136] According to
Sunni tafsir, the following Qur'anic verse was delivered in this incident: “Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you.”(Qur'an 5:3)
[14] According to
Shia tafsir, it refers to appointment of
Ali ibn Abi Talib at the
pond of Khumm as
Muhammad's successor, this occurring a few days later when Muslims were returning from Mecca to Medina.
[137]A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with
head pain and weakness. He died on Monday, June 8, 632, in Medina. He is buried where he died which was in his wife Aisha's house and is now housed within the
Mosque of the Prophet in
Medina.
[138][14][139] Next to Muhammad's tomb, there is another empty tomb that Muslims believe awaits Jesus.
[139][140]Aftermath
See also:
Rashidun,
Muslim conquest, and
Succession to MuhammadConquests of Muhammad and the Rashidun.
Muhammad united the
tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community.
[141] Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated
Abu Bakr, Muhammad's friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first
caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the successor by Muhammad at
Ghadir Khumm. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to make an expedition against the
Byzantine (or
Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode referred to by later Muslim historians as the
Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".
[142]The pre-Islamic
Middle East was dominated by the
Byzantine and
Sassanian empires. The
Roman-Persian Wars between the two had devastated the inhabitants, making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, most Christian Churches in the lands to be conquered by Muslims such as
Nestorians,
Monophysites,
Jacobites and
Copts were under pressure from the
Christian Orthodoxy who deemed them heretics. Within only a decade, Muslims conquered
Mesopotamia and
Persia,
Roman Syria and
Roman Egypt.
[143] and established the
Rashidun empire.
Wives and children
Main articles:
Muhammad's wives and
Ahl al-BaytMuhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods:
pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and
post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives or concubines (there are differing accounts on the status of some of them as wife or concubine
[144])
[145] All but two of his marriages were contracted after the
migration to Medina.
The wives of MuhammadMothers of the Believers
Khadija bint KhuwaylidSawda bint ZamaAisha bint Abu BakrHafsa bint UmarZaynab bint KhuzaymaHind bint Abi UmayyaZaynab bint JahshJuwayriya bint al-HarithRamlah bint Abi SufyanRayhana bint AmrSafiyya bint HuyayyMaymuna bint al-HarithMaria al-QibtiyyaAt the age of 25, Muhammad married
Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.
[146] Muhammad relied upon Khadija in many ways and did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage.
[147][148] After the death of Khadija, it was suggested to Muhammad by Khawla bint Hakim, that he should marry
Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow, or
Aisha, the young daughter of Abu Bakr.
[149] Muhammad is said to have asked her to arrange for him to marry both.
[113] Later, Muhammad married
additional wives nine of whom survived him.
[145] Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by many decades and was instrumental in helping to bring together the scattered sayings of Muhammad that would form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.
[113]After migration to Medina, Muhammad (who was now in his fifties) married several women. These marriages were contracted mostly for political or humanitarian reasons, these wives being either widows of Muslims who had been killed in the battles and had been left without a protector, or belonging to important families or clans whom it was necessary to honor and strengthen alliances.
[150]Muhammad did his own household chores and helped with housework, such as preparing food, sewing clothes and repairing shoes. Muhammad is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.
[151][152][153]Khadijah is said to have borne Muhammad four daughters (
Ruqayyah bint Muhammad,
Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad,
Zainab bint Muhammad,
Fatimah Zahra) and two sons (
Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and
Qasim ibn Muhammad) who both died in childhood. All except two of his daughters, Fatimah and Zainab, died before him.
[154] Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter.
[155] Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named
Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, but the child died when he was two years old.
[154]Muhammad's descendants through Fatimah are known as
sharifs, syeds or
sayyids. These are honorific titles in
Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'as place much more emphasis and value on their distinction.
[156]Legacy
Reforms
Main article:
Early reforms under IslamAccording to
William Montgomery Watt, for Muhammad, religion was not a private and individual matter but rather “the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not only]… to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject."
[157] Bernard Lewis says that there are two important political traditions in Islam – one that views Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and another that views him as a rebel in Mecca. He sees Islam itself as a type of revolution that greatly changed the societies into which the new religion was brought.
[158]9th century
Qur'an, the main legacy of Muhammad.
Historians generally agree that Islamic social reforms in areas such as
social security, family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the
status quo of Arab society.
[158][159] For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced
aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents".
[158] Muhammad's message transformed the society and
moral order of life in the Arabian Peninsula through reorientation of society as regards to identity,
world view, and the hierarchy of values.
[160] Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in
pre-Islamic Mecca.
[161] The Qur'an requires payment of an alms tax (
zakat) for the benefit of the poor, and as Muhammad's position grew in power he demanded that those tribes who wanted to ally with him implement the zakat in particular.
[162][163]Sunnah
The
Sunnah represents the actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports known as
Hadith), and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals, personal hygiene, burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad taught Muslims to offer each other, “may peace be upon you” (Arabic:
as-salamu `alaykum) is used by Muslims throughout the world. Many details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting and the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Qur'an.
[164]The Sunnah also played a major role in the development of the Islamic sciences. It contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century.
[165] Muslim mystics, known as
sufis, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Qur'an and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect saint. Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad.
[166]Traditional views
Muslim veneration
See also:
Islamic views of Muhammad,
Naat,
Depictions of Muhammad,
Islamic music,
Qawwali,
Islamic view of miracles, and
List of films about the Prophet MuhammadTopkapı Palace gate with Shahadah and his seal. The Muslim
Profession of faith, the
Shahadah, illustrates the Muslim conception of the role of Muhammad – "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is His Messenger."
Persian manuscript miniature depicting Muhammad, from
Rashid al-Din's
Jami al-Tawarikh, approximately 1315, illustrating the episode of the
Black Stone.
[167]"Muhammad preaching" (1840-1850) by
Grigory Gagarin - a 19th Century
Russian view of the founder of Islam.
Following the attestation to the oneness of God, the belief in Muhammad's prophethood is the main aspect of the
Islamic faith. Every Muslim proclaims in the
Shahadah that "I testify that Muhammad is a
messenger of Allah". The Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of Islam. Ideally, it is the first words a newborn will hear, and children are taught as soon as they are able to understand it and it will be recited when they die. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (
adhan) and the
prayer itself. Non-Muslims wishing to
convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.
[168]Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad. Stories of Muhammad's life, his intercession and of his miracles (particularly "
Splitting of the moon") have permeated popular Muslim thought and poetry. The Qur'an refers to Muhammad as "a mercy (rahmat) to the worlds" (Qur'an
21:107).
[14] The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth (see, for example, the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif).
[14] Muhammad's birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the
Islamic world, excluding
Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged.
[169] Muslims experience Muhammad as a living reality, believing in his ongoing significance to human beings as well as animals and plants.
[169]According to historian Denis Gril, the Qur'an does not overtly describe Muhammad performing miracles, and the supreme miracle of Muhammad is finally
identified with the Qur’an itself.
[170] However, Muslim tradition credits Muhammad with several supernatural events.
[171] For example, many Muslim commentators and some Western scholars have interpreted the Surah
54:1-2 as referring to Muhammad
splitting the Moon in view of the
Quraysh when they began persecuting his followers.
[170][172]When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad or any other prophet in Islam, they usually follow it with
Peace be upon him (Arabic: sallAllahu `alayhi wa sallam).
[173]European and Western views
See also:
Medieval Christian view of MuhammadThe biographical knowledge about Muhammad in the learned, Latin circles of the
Middle Ages in Europe, was remarkably precise to some extent and a good amount of concrete data about his life was known. Learned European circles of the time interpreted the data in such a way that Muhammad was viewed as a charlatan driven by ambition and eagerness for power, and who seduced the
Saracens into his submission under a religious guise.
[14] This knowledge about Muhammad's life in Latin theological texts was not reflected in the popular literature of the Middle Ages, in which Muhammad was viewed as an idol or one of the heathen gods.
[14] Some medieval Christians said he died in 666, alluding to
the number of the beast, instead of 632;
[174] others changed his name from Muhammad to
Mahound, the "devil incarnate".
[175] Bernard Lewis writes "The development of the concept of
Mahound started with considering Muhammad as a kind of demon or false god worshipped with
Apollyon and
Termagant in an unholy trinity."
[176] A later medieval work, Livre dou Tresor represents Muhammad as a former monk and cardinal.
[14] Dante's Divine Comedy (Canto
XXVIII), puts Muhammad, together with Ali, in
Hell "among the sowers of discord and the schismatics, being lacerated by devils again and again."
[14]After the
reformation, Muhammad was no longer viewed as a god or idol, but as a cunning, ambitious, and self-seeking impostor.
[176][14] Guillaume Postel was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad.
[14] Boulainvilliers described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker.
[14] Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad because "he did not deviate from the natural religion".
[14] Friedrich Bodenstedt (1851) described Muhammad as "an ominous destroyer and a prophet of murder."
[14] Later Western works, many of which, from the 18th century onward, distanced themselves from the polemical histories of earlier Christian authors. These more historically-oriented treatments, which generally reject the prophethood of Muhammad, are coloured by the
Western philosophical and theological framework of their authors. Many of these studies reflect much historical research, and most pay more attention to human, social, economic, and political factors than to religious, theological, and spiritual matters.
[19]It was not until the latter part of the 20th century that Western authors combined rigorous scholarship as understood in the modern West with empathy toward the subject at hand and, especially, awareness of the religious and spiritual realities involved in the study of the life of the founder of a major world religion.
[19] According to
Watt and Richard Bell, recent writers have generally dismissed the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad “was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith”.
[177] Watt says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: In contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his own subconscious for divine revelation.
[178] Although Muhammad's image in the west is much less unfavorable than in the past, prejudicial folk beliefs remain.
[179]Watt and
Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand the development of Islam.
[180][181] Welch holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.
[14] Muhammad’s readiness to endure hardship for his cause when there seemed to be no rational basis for hope shows his sincerity.
[182]Other religious traditions
Bahá'ís venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "
Manifestations of God", but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of
Bahá'u'lláh.
[183]Muhammad is regarded as one of the
Saints of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints considers Muhammad, along with Confucius, the Reformers, as well as philosophers including Socrates, Plato, and others, to have received a portion of God's light and that moral truths were given to them to enlighten nations and bring a higher level of understanding to individuals.
[184]Guru Nanak, the founder of
Sikhism, viewed Muhammad as an agent of the Hindu supreme being Brahman.
[185]The
Roman Catholic Church, does not regard Muhammad as a prophet. According to
Pope John Paul II, Muhammad's teachings "completely reduces Divine Revelation" and sets aside "all the richness of God's self-revelation, which constitutes the heritage of the Old and New Testaments". He then explained that the God of the Qur'an is "ultimately a God outside of the world, a God who is only Majesty, never Emmanuel, God-with-us. Islam is not a religion of redemption. There is no room for the Cross and the Resurrection. [...] For this reason not only the theology but also the anthropology of Islam is very distant from Christianity." Pope John Paul II adds that nevertheless Muslims' fidelity to prayer deserves admiration.
[186]
